Vol. 53 APRIL 1977 No. 2 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST POINAR — Observations on the kelp fly, Coelopa vanduzeei Cresson in Southern Californiatbipteras Goeloprdae).. 20... 2. ele ae ee oh oe 81 CHENG — The Elusive Seabug Hermatobates (Heteroptera).....................-. 87 TIDWELL and PHILIP — A New Bolbodimyia from Mexico’s Central Plateau (Diptera: MabaniGae)esarcryvs stews, eee sc eee epee Ocha, fier cee. Seles, lRtshai's oslo. oeeee cas caches 98 MAYER and JOHANSEN — Cautharidin from Meloe niger Kirby (Coleoptera: Metoidac) gigi: Moa dir a wet CR ee ee Pn. le ee 2 101 YOUNG — Notes on the Biology of Hypothyris euclea in Costa Rica (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Seek ele SE cae a POR, Sem cee yl chi Ly cake 104 LANGSTON and MILLER — Expanded distribution of earwigs in California (Denniapte ra) memes eee. eee tee cos ain Me ON oe os scala sheces oo yn tees ees 114 HARTMAN and HYNES — Biology of the range crane fly, Tipula simplex Doane (Diptera aU GAS) Meera Pk cts evar epee re, cca Mineo e := geen Meeebens’ « ailebayegeceust’s 118 CHEMSAK — New Neotropical Tillomorphini in the genus Jetranodus Linell (ColeopteraGerambycidae)k t..c . 4 54 oe retin atte ee ae ince Ss are 124 SIEGFRIED et al. — The Adults of Oroperla barbara (Needham) (Plecoptera: REMOGIGGe)Y sic. ....gtcee ie vec siis, ome sheers AEN tay S of ores GARE Sue "TOSS aid arehe gy Saree 126 POTTS — Revision of the Scarabaeidae: Anomalinae 3. A Key to the Species of Anomala of America North of Mexico (Coleoptera)................00000eee 129 PINTO — Descriptions of the First Instar Larvae of Three Species of Epicautine Blister Beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae) ............ 0... cece eee eee eee eee 135 SMETANA — A New Species of the Genus Cryptop/eurum Muls. from Central America (Coleopteray Hydrophilidae)23 5.5.0: Se hes 2 ee ae) ne oe ne ee 142 DAILEY — Elevation of Loxaul/us brunneus variety atrior (Kinsey) to full species status (ymenopteravGynipidaeyc, 2ecn8 Natalee ean Sa toaee i: Spee, uals scree 145 PAULSON and GARRISON — A List and New Distributional Records of Pacific CoastOdoniatar. tr. Ay: Gets o-.choncsapehbehe se cae ierece of pMllue foe Wand oles Gaal 147 ZOO LO GIGAIENOMENGEATURES® «01 sic eels on ns cee enti oe en eels aus es 86 SCIENMEIGIN@MES wre. cceet ek. eee ac yan aves MBAS: Selec, eae 103, 113, 123, 144 ERD UNO REA Ua NO UG Eee, lm ee Sik ahh, Meteora vers cet, -, «oe MN Lae, SAW. an. Choa. aes 146 PISMO FUG ARUN Oily een ge ce wis cet eet eRe ence UNM crates eee aay oo -otc UBM ea nS 117 CORRECT O Nig soe ben cpa smears Ct ariefots in. ake AN BEC EE tere Dirge cab ang Mee «Swe lade 97 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA ¢ 1977 Published by the PACIFIC COAST ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY in cooperation with THE CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST EDITORIAL BOARD T.D. Eichlin, A.R. Hardy, Co-Editors C.M. Walby, Editorial Asst. P.H. Arnaud, Jr., Treasurer H.B. Leech H.V. Daly E.S. Ross E.G. Linsley Published quarterly in January, April, July and October with Society Proceedings appearing in the January number. All communications regarding nonreceipt of numbers, requests for sample copies, and financial communications should be addressed to the Treasurer, Dr. Paul H. Arnaud, Jr., California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118. Application for membership in the Society and changes of address should be ad- dressed to the Secretary, Larry Bezark, c/o Department of Entomology, California State University, San Jose, CA. 95120 Manuscripts, proofs and all correspondence concerning editorial matters should be addressed to either Dr. Thomas Eichlin or Dr. Alan Hardy, Insect Taxonomy Laboratory, California Department of Food and Agriculture, 1220 “‘N”’ St., Sacramento, 95814. The annual dues, paid in advance, are $12.00 for regular members of the Society, $7.00 for student members, or $15.00 for subscription only. Members of the society receive The Pan-Pacific Entomologist. Single copies of recent numbers are $3.75 each or $15.00 a volume. Write to the treasurer for prices of earlier back numbers. Make all checks payable to Pan-Pacific Entomologist. The Pacific Coast Entomological Society OFFICERS FOR 1977 R.E. Stecker, President Paul H. Arnaud, Jr., Treasurer C. Dailey, President-Elect L. Bezark, Secretary Statement of Ownership Title of Publication: The Pan-Pacific Entomologist. Frequency of Issue: Quarterly (January, April, July, October). Location of Office of Publication, Business Office of Publisher and Owner: Pacific Coast Entomological Society, California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118. Editors: T.D. Eichlin and A.R. Hardy, Insect Taxonomy Laboratory, California Dept. of Food and Agriculture, 1220 N St., Sacramento, California 95814. Managing Editor and Known Bondholders or other Security Holders: None. SESE Eee Second Class Postage Paid at San Francisco, California and additional offices. Publication #419440 The Pan-Pacific Entomologist Vol. 53 APRIL 1977 No. 2 Observations on the kelp fly, Coelopa vanduzeei Cresson in Southern California (Coelopidae: Diptera) George O. Poinar, ur. Division of Entomology and Parasitology, University of California, Berkeley 94720 The kelp fly, Coelopa vanduzeei Cresson, occurs along the Pacific coast from Baja California to Kodiak, Alaska (Cole, 1967). This fly becomes numerous on beaches in southern California in late summer and causes general annoyance to bathers and others frequenting the seashore. Adult flies swarm over stranded kelp on the beach and literally darken the sand with their numbers. Observations made ona beach in southern California during the summer and winter months show this fly to have a behavioral pattern different from that reported in other parts of California (Kompfner, 1974). Materials and Methods Field observations were made during the months of August, December and January (1974 and 1975) on a San Diego County beach located in the town of Solana Beach, California. The beach is com- posed almost entirely of sand which abuts against steep sandstone cliffs. Large kelp beds which occur just offshore supply a continual source of wrack on the beach. The kelp forming the majority of the wrack beds are the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera; the elk kelp, Pelagophycus porra; and the feather-boa kelp, Egregia sp. Mature larvae and puparia of C. vanduzeei were observed directly on the beach and collected for laboratory studies by washing infested beach sand through window screen. Adults were collected with a net and maintained in cages with washed beach sand. Results All stages of C. vanduzeei were found in or under the kelp during the study period. The adults probably occur on the beach throughout The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:81-86. April 1977. 82 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig.1. Small clump of kelp harboring developing larvae of C. vanduzee/. Note adults of C. vanduzeei on the sand adjacent to the seaweed. Fig.2. Adults of C. vanduzeei clustering on seaweed. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 83 the year, although their populations in winter are much lower than in late summer. Whereas larvae and puparia are common in December, many adult flies appear to be in a state of diapause. During the day, they can be found clustering under seaweed at the high tide level, and during the night many occur in crevices or protected areas on the sandstone cliffs. During the month of August, the flies emerge overa 1-2 week period and literally cover the beach, not only clustering on washed-up seaweed,: but alighting indiscriminately on sand and bathers (Figs. 1 & 2). They were especially attracted to bird droppings and marine invertebrates that were washed ashore. The white, elliptical eggs were deposited singly or in small groups in the kelp piles (Fig. 3). The females generally sought out the moist seaweed at the bottom of the wrack piles. Eggs were usually only deposited on seaweed at the high tide level and rarely on kelp stranded in the middle or lower tide zone. This may be because the eggs are only lightly attached to the seaweed and are easily washed off. However, they hatch very quickly, often within 24 hours at temp- eratures reached at the study site (90°F). The newly hatched larvae may tunnel through the fleshy parts of the seaweed or simply grove the outside portion of the plant, as is typical of the older larvalinstars. In August, the larvae prefer to feed on kelp covered with 1-2 inches of sand, probably because the exposed portions quickly desiccate in the hot, dry climate. This also serves to protect them from being washed out to sea. During December and January, the larvae can be found feeding within the exposed kelp mass. The mature third instar larvae collect together in clusters just under the surface of the sand near the kelp piles. When the latter are turned over and the first few inches of sand removed, the sand literally moves with maggots. Their presence is indicated by the activities of shore birds such as the western willet, Catopthrophorus semipalmatus and marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa, which will come to the high tide level or even above to feed on larvae of C. vanduzeei. Other enemies of larval kelp flies were mainly staphylinid beetles, especially Cafius seminitens. This predator was extremely abundant and could be collected in large numbers by digging acylindrical hole (830 cm deep) in the sand near the fly larvae. Amphipods were also found associated with larvae of C. vanduzeei. The larvae pupate in the upper few centimeters of sand and the adult flies emerge in 5-6 days. Most mature iarvae collected in August ranged from 8-10 mm in length. The puparium is usually dark brown and about 5 mm long. The waves wash them out of the sand where they collect conspicuously on the beach (Fig. 4). The adult flies range from 3.5 - 5.0 mm in length, and in the fall began mating soon after emergence. At least a portion of the adult winter population appears to be in diapause. The adults were restricted to the immediate beach area and were never recovered from refuse near adjacent homes: 84 Fig. 3. Fig. 4. THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Eggs (arrow) of C. vanduzeei attached to seaweed. Mature third-stage larvae and puparia of C. vanduzeei. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 85 Discussion It is interesting that Egglishaw (1960) reported largest numbers of Coelopa frigida and C. pilipes in England during the autumn and winter months. This was associated with the comparatively larger masses of wrack washed up on shore in the fall. The situation is reversed in southern California. Aside from_the increased temperature, there are two other factors which probably play a role in the summer’s produc- tion of large numbers of flies. Large kelp beds just off shore are com- mercially harvested throughout the summer. This results in masses of kelp fragments which are washed on the beach and provide food for the flies. Also, from time to time during the summer months, the wrack is pushed aside by bulldozers to maintain a clean swimming area. In so doing, large piles of seaweed which become half buried in the sand above or at the high tide level provide an ideal breeding habitat for C. vanduzeei and other flies. The adults then become a general nuisance to people, alighting on their bodies and are some- times seen around the eyes of children. It is known that adult kelp flies from several coast sites in Australia carry a virus. Scotti et al (1976) comment that this virus appears most common in winter when the adult flies are gregarious. The host range of this virus has not completely been determined. The importance of C. vanduzeei and other kelp flies in ridding the beaches of seaweed should also be mentioned. Egglishaw (1960) mentioned that stalks of the seaweed, Laminaria that were not at- tacked by larvae of C. frigida, withered and dried up, but stalks with feeding larvae quickly decomposed, indicating that larval activity greatly helped decomposition of the wrack. Thompson in Egglishaw (1960) found that larvae of C. frigida did not survive well if only a few were present, and suggested that numerous larvae may be necessary to provide an attractive feeding environment. This may explain, in part, why Coelopid flies are usually seen in large numbers. Kompfner (1974) reported that in Monterey Bay, California, C. vanduzeei occupied the lower beach wrack banks. The present studies showed that during August, most activity occurred in the kelp piles at the upper beach banks. This variation could result from the different physical environment of the two beaches, however it would be interesting to know if behaviorial races of this kelp fly species occur. Acknowledgments The author thanks Mr. and Mrs. H. Baltz for providing living facil- ities during these investigations. Thanks are also extended to W. N. Mathis, of Oregon State University for identification of the flies and to W. G. Evans, of the University of Alberta for identification of the staphylinid beetles. 86 THE PAN-PACIFIG ENTOMOLOGIST Literature Cited Cole, F.R. 1969. The Flies of Western North America. Univ. Calif. Pres, Berkeley. 693 pp. Egglishaw, H. 1960. Studies on the family Coelopidae (Diptera). Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. London, 112:109-140. Kompfner, H. 1974. Larvae and pupae of some wrack dipterans on a California beach. Pan-Pac. Entomol., 50:44-52. Scotti, P.D., A.J. Gibbs and N.G. Wrigley 1976. Kelp fly virus. J. Gen. Virol., 30:1-9. ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE ANNOUNCEMENT A.N. (S) 101 The required six months’ notice is given of the possible use of plenary powers by the International Commission on Zoological No- menclature in connection with the following names listed by case number: (see Bul. Zool. Nom. 33,parts 3 & 4, 31 March 1977). Z.N.(S.)2157 Goniurellia Hendel, 1927 (Insecta, Dip- tera, TEPHRITIDAE): designation of type-species. Z.N.(S.)2168 Siphonophora Fischer, 1823 (Bryozoa), status of: Siphonophora Brandt, 1837 (Diplopoda, Polyzoniida), validation of. Z.N.(S.)2170 Pieris castoria Reakirt, 1867 (Insecta, LEPIDOPTERA): proposed suppression. Z.N.(S.)2173 Culex loewi Giebel, 1862 (Insecta, Dip- tera, CULICIDAE): request for suppress- ion so as to conserve Toxorhynchites brevipalpis Theobald, 1901. Comments should be sent in duplicate (if possible within 6 months of the date of publication of this notice), citing case number to: R.V. Melville, The Secretary International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature c/o British Museum (Natural History) Cromwell Road, LONDON SW7 5BD, England. Those received early enough will be published in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. The Elusive Sea Bug Hermatobates' (Heteroptera) Lanna Cheng Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, La Jolla, 92093 Although the genus Hermatobates was first established in 1892, the nine known species have hitherto been represented by only 14 type specimens and the females of only two species have been des- cribed (Table 1). In no case has a species been described from more than three specimens. Several sea-going entomologists have sought these elusive sea-bugs, but few have been successful and it is quite apparent that these insects are rare. Although clearly distinct from other known marine hemipterans as a generic entity, Hermatobates was included in the family Gerridae by all the earlier authors, al- though, its affinities to the other genera are unclear. Matsuda (1960), in his monograph of the World Gerridae, excluded Hermatobates from the family on the basis of several important structural differ- ences, notably the completely fused meso- and meta-thorax in the male, the highly modified meso-notum with lateral lobes in the female, the three-segmented tarsus of all the legs, the granulated appearance of the eyes, and the presence of a scent gland opening on the dorsal surface. The insects are certainly very different from the Gerridae and should be treated as a separate family (Andersen and Polhemus, 1976). However, until we can establish the systematic importance of various characteristics it is difficult to decide the phylogenetic rela- tionships of Hermatobates to other aquatic Heteroptera. Systematics and Review of Literature Carpenter (1892), who discovered these insects, described the genus Hermatobates on the basis of a single male specimen, which he named H. haddoni, collected from coral reefs off the Australian coast. Since his specimen was very different from all other known gerrids, he suggested assigning it to a special subfamily (Hydro- metridae in his paper). A second species, H. djiboutensis, was added by Coutiére and Martin (1901a), who in the same year (1901b) des- cribed a third, Hermatobatodes marchei, and created a new subfamily, Hermatobatinae, to include these two genera (1901c). Bergroth (1906) found that these two genera were distinguished merely by sexual differences, since the two earlier species were only known from the males, and therefore synonymised Hermatobatodes with Hermato- bates. H. marchei was synonymised with H. haddoni (Esaki, 1947) but the earlier name was later resurrected by China (1957), who des- ‘This paper was originally accepted for publication in Pacific Insects (see Cheng, 1976); it has been with- drawn owing to printer’s problems at that journal. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:87-97. April 1977. 88 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig. 1. Hermatobates hawaiiensis male, dorsal view. Fig. 2. Hermatobates hawailiensis fe- male, dorsal view (scale bar = 1 mm). cribed three more species, H. hawaijensis, H. walkeri, and H. weddi (1956, 1957),and constructed a key to the six known species (1956). Two more species, H. breddini and H. tiarae, were added by Herring (1965) and yet another was described by Cheng (1966, 1969), bringing the total number of Known species in the genus to nine. Since most of the species were described from one or two type specimens (see Table 1), and substantial intraspecific variations were found among specimens examined in this study, it is impossible to construct a meaningful key to the species at present. Distribution The recorded localities of all nine Hermatobates species are shown on Map 1. They are widely distributed, with representatives collected from the Indian, Pacific, and the Atlantic Oceans. However, six of the nine described species are known from only the type localities. Of the remaining three, H. dj/iboutensis has been collected from Djibouti and the Maldive Islands (Phillips, 1959), H. hawaiiensis appears to be confined to the Hawaiian Islands, whereas H. haddoni has been re- ported from Troughton Island (14° 45’S, 125° 10’E, Arafura Sea; Walker, 1893; Carpenter, 1901), Monte Bello Island (China, 1957), the Ryukyu Islands (Esaki, 1947), and Tahuata in the Marquesas Islands (China & Usinger, 1950) in addition to its type locality (Mabuiag Island). The Tahuata record was based on only one nymph, of which the specific identity has been questioned by Herring (1965), as has that of the specimens from New Caledonia and the Ryukyu Islands. In an earlier paper, Esaski (1935) himself expressed uncertainty as to the identity of the specimens, but he later decided that they belonged to H. haddoni (1947). Since at that time no other Pacific species had VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 89 been described, and since all other known Hermatobates species are rather restricted in their distribution, we cannot verify the presence of this species in the Ryukyus and New Caledonia until Esaki’s specimens can be reexamined or until other collections from these localities become available. The other records of this species, from the Marquesas, Palmyra and Christmas Islands (Herring, 1965; China, 1956),were all nymphs, hence their specific identity could not be ascertained either. More recently some specimens of Hermatobates have been col- lected from Low Isles, Australia, but they have not been identified to species (Marks, 1971). During several recent collecting expeditions specimens of Hermatobates were collected from localities where it has not been previously reported: Enewetak Atoll, Fiji, Tonga, New Caledonia, Heron Island and Magnetic Island off the coast of Queens- land, Australia, and Pulau Salu off Singapore. In Enewetak, Fiji and Tonga adults attracted to lamps at night were netted as they skated towards the light. They were caught at or shortly before low tide. Collections at Enewetak were made at Japtan and Medren Islands from dinghies anchored near wooden piers several hundred meters offshore, in the vicinity of live corals. In Fiji, the insects were caught near the Marine Science Institute, University of South Pacific, Suva, beside a pier encrusted with barnacles and surrounded by coral rubble. In the main harbour of Nuku Alofa, Tonga, some specimens were caught when attracted to a light hung over a stone pier 3 meters wide, several hundred meters long, about 100 meters from shore and level with the reef flat; others were caught by random sweeps under an overhanging shelf near the light on the leeward side of the pier; none were caught from the windward side. These collections probably represent yet other new species which will be described at a later date. General Structure All Known specimens of Hermatobates, like those of Halobates, are wingless. The bodies of adults are dark brown or black, and mea- sure 2.5 to 4mm in length and about 1 to 2 mm in width. The nymphs are brown, but otherwise are similar to the adults in general structure. The body and all the legs are covered with fine hairs. The head is ex- tremely short and more rounded anteriorly than that of Ha/obates, giving the insect a somewhat oval shape (Figures 1 & 2). The eyes have a granulated appearance owing to-the pronounced convexity of the individual ommatidia, whereas in Ha/obates the outer surfaces of the lenses are rather flat and form a continuous surface. The Her- matobates eyes further differ from those of Ha/obates in posessing long, thin inter-ommatidial hairs or setae, similar to those on other areas of the head of the insect (Figure 3). Such eye setae have been observed in some terrestrial insects by Hinton (1970), who suggested 90 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig. 3. Surface of eye showing inter-ommatidial hairs (stereoscan electron micrograph scale bar = 100um). that they are simply extensions of the cephalic receptor system, and do not obstruct incident light normal to the ommatidia. In some beetles such setae may help to make the eyes less conspicuous to | predators (Hinton, 1970), but what function these setae may serve in the sea bug is unknown. The pronota of these insects are very short. In the male, the meso- and meta-nota are completely fused and extend posteriorly to cover several of the fused anterior abdominal segments (Figure 1). In the female, some of the anterior abdominal segments are exposed be- tween the lateral lobes of the mesonotum (Figure 2). The front legs of the males of several species of Hermatobates are evidently modified for grasping, and bear one or more large, tooth- like tubercles in addition to smaller teeth. The tarsi of all the legs are three-segmented, although the first segment is very short. This character further distinguishes adult Hermatobates from other Gerridae, although during the nymphal stages the tarsi are not seg- mented. All distal tarsal segments bear strong claws, which are sub- apical on the front tarsus but apical on the mid and hind tarsi (Figure 4). Such claws, on both sexes, suggest that these bugs could easily cling to rocks or other objects. The middle legs are about the same length as the hind legs which are held almost at the tip of the abdomen, while in Halobates the middle legs are about 1.5 times as long as the hind legs, which are held halfway up the abdomen. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 91 Fig.4. Stereoscan electron micrograph of mid-tarsal claws (scale bar = 50 um). Biology Our knowledge on the biology of these sea-bugs has hitherto been based on only three field observations, by Walker (1893), Esaki (1947) and Usinger & Herring (1957). Both Walker and Esaki found them together with other marine insects on coral reefs which are sub- merged at high tide. Walker found his specimens of Hermatobates under a dead TJridacna shell, where there was also a spider; some specimens of the ocean-strider Ha/obates were also found, in nearby salt pools left by the receding tide. Esaki found his Hermatobates at low tide ‘walking’ on the coral reefs or moving on the surface of tide pools in a manner rather different from that of other gerrids. He did not see them at high tide, and assumed that they hide in crevices or under shells. They were found together with many Halovelia septen- trionalis (Veliidae), an unidentified collembolan and an unidentified staphylinid beetle. He also noted that marine midges (Clunio paci- ficus and C. setoensis) were abundant nearby. The types of H. wedd/ and H., walkeri were both collected from coral reefs; those of H. ; a | 40° Hermatobates sp % A . ingapore Apishigaki I. Qe oy ERED H. marche! SE 2 N oot | A2oe Philippines Palmyra I. Christmas I. 0° Marquesas I. New A H weddi \, Galedonia H tiarae 0 Monte Bello I, vy p Tamall Arch. a H. wa/ker/ Ao? Arafura Sea Lpeeant Mabuiag I. 20° 60° 100° 140° 180° 140° |OQO0° 60° 20° Map 1 Distribution of Hermatobates spp. showing type localities (0) and other collecting records for H. haddoni(A). - c6 LSIDOTOWOLNA DlSIDVd-NVd SHL VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 93 breddini and H. tiarae were collected at sea under lamps, as were the specimens collected off the Singapore coast. Our first daylight glimpse of Hermatobates was in Noumea, New Caledonia, where these insects appeared as small silvery objects moving extremely fast over the surface of the water amongst Sar- gassum weed half exposed at low tide. Individual specimens ap- peared very suddenly and disappeared with equal suddenness. The first was caught after much patient waiting and fast chasing, but, once we discovered what to look for, several additional specimens were captured on two subsequent days at low tide, when the water was calm. However, no insects came to the light of lanterns hung over the water at high tide in the same locality at night. On Heron Island we found adults as well as nymphs of Hermato- bates at low tide during daylight hours in the afternoons, but we en- countered none at our lights at night (when the winds were higher and the sea surface choppy). Adults were found skating over fast- flowing rivulets of ebbing seawater between large boulders at the ridge of the reef-flat, i.e., at the outer edge of the reef where the boulders are first exposed at receding tides. To our great surprise, we also found nymphs of various stages clinging to the undersides of such boulders, associated with Ha/ovelia, Collembola, staphylinid beetles and mites. As the water ran off the overturned rocks many of the insects began to move, while others remained motionless, en- closed in air-bubbles. It is possible that normally, as the tide recedes and the boulders became exposed, such nymphs will crawl out from their hiding places to feed, and indeed we found several of them moving over the surface of small rock pools when the tide was at its lowest level, though they became rarer and disappeared as the tide began to rise. None were seen at high tide, when presumably the insects would have crawled under boulders and survived enclosed in air bubbles until the next low tide. We could not directly observe them to do so, since such small insects (less than 2mm in size) can- not be watched in the splashing waters of an incoming tide. When living specimens were set in a laboratory aquarium supplied with dried pieces of corals and then artificially flooded, they simply rose to the surface and swam or rested with bunched up legs on the water. When bits of dead Jubipora musica (organ-pipe coral) were supplied as substrate, the insects readily crawled into the tubes even without flooding. On Magnetic Island, specimens of Hermatobates were col- lected in conditions more or less similar to those on Heron Island. All the collections were made at low tide during the day: here, too we were unable to do any night collecting. From such observations we deduced that the Hermatobates col- lected previously at night lights on the open ocean were ‘strays’, the natural habitats of these sea-bugs being coral rubble, as indicated by Esaki (1947), and rocks in the low intertidal. At low tide they come out to feed on small animals among intertidal rocks and algae, and at 94 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig.5. Portion of thorax, showing microtrichia (stereoscan electron micrograph, scale bar = 10um). high tide they hide in crevices or under boulders, enclosing them- selves in air bubbles much in the same way as do intertidal veliids and saldids (Andersen and Polhemus, 1976; Polhemus, 1976). If, however, they cannot find a resting place under water before the tide rises, they can swim or rest on the water surface for many hours. We were able to keep specimens in the laboratory on seawater for more than 5 days without their showing any ill effects. It is possible that in some areas, and at times when weather conditions are rough, the incidence of ‘straying’ on the sea surface can be quite high. Among surface plankton tows made in open waters off Hawaiian shores, in the course of a study of larval fish, 23 samples contained Hermatobates hawaiiensis: in one sample, 8 insects had been netted. in less than 10 minutes (Cheng, unpublished data.). Discussions Hermatobates appears ideally suited to an intertidal coral reef existence. It has large eyes, presumably adapted for vision in air rather than in water (Figure 3); strong claws for clinging to algae- covered rocks (Figure 4); and a well developed plastron (Figures VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 95 Fig. 6. Microtrichia at higher magnification (stereoscan electron micrograph, scale bar = 5yum). 5 & 6) similar to that of freshwater gerrids (Cheng, 1973). The strongly developed front femora, found in males of several described species, are probably adaptations for clinging to the females. Their legs, in contrast to those of Halobates, are more adapted for walking over rocks than for skating over water. Although they can skim extremely quickly over water, their movements are mainly confined to short dashes as they skate from boulder to boulder; presumably they do not travel over large expanses of water as do Halobates (Cheng, 1974). When chased they often make for the nearest rock, cling to it and remain stationary; under such circumstances they are very hard to see, Halobates is unable to do so. They can also jump well; adults leaping from a water surface reach a height of 5-6 cm. Since these insects may have to come out and feed at low tide during rain storms, experiments were carried out on the effects of reduced salinity on their activities. We detected no difference in the behavior or viability of insects kept on seawater or on freshwater over a 24-hour period. Their ability to withstand submersion was tested by keeping insects fully immersed in boiled (deoxygenated) and unboiled sea- water. In the former, they ceased to move within 10-15 minutes; if 96 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Table 1. Type specimens of Hermatobates spp. with type localities. Species Author, Year No., Type Type Locality breddini Herring, 1965 1 male Woodbridge Bay, Dominica British West Indies djiboutensis Coutiére & Martin, 1901a 1 male Djibouti, Red Sea haddoni Carpenter, 1892 1 male Mabuiag Island, North Australia hawailiensis China, 1956 1 male, Coconut Island, Hawaii 2 females marchei Coutiére & Martin, 1901b 1 male Honda Bay, Philippines singaporensis Cheng, 1976 1male, Singapore 2 females tiarae Herring, 1965 1 male Tuamoto Archipelago, French Oceania walkeri China, 1957 2males Arafura Sea, N.W. Australia weddi China, 1957 1 male Monte Bello Islands then released and blotted dry, they regained their mobility in 10-15 minutes. If left in boiled seawater for more than 30 minutes, however, they died. Insects submerged in ordinary seawater remained mobile for at least 6 hours; when then released and dried, they became fully -active in 10-15 minutes. Nymphs appeared to withstand submersion much better than adults, remaining mobile under water for longer periods of time and, when released, regaining mobility within shorter periods of time. Although our knowledge of the biology of these elusive sea bugs is still rather fragmentary, now that their normal habitats are known (i.e., coral rubble or reefs of tropical island shores) and the best times and methods for capturing them have been established, they may not remain so apparently rare or elusive for long. Acknowledgments ! wish to thank the Mid-Pacific Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii, for providing travel funds and living and research facilities at Enewetak; the Roche Institute of Marine Pharmacology, Australia, for providing accommodation and research facilities on Heron Island; the Department of Marine Science, James Cook University, for laboratory facilities; and Ralph A. Lewin for assistance in the field. ‘Literature Cited Andersen, N. M. & J. T. Polhemus. 1976. Water-striders (Hemiptera: Gerridae, Veliidae, etc.). In Marine Insects (ed.) L. Cheng, pp. 187-224. North-Holland, Amsterdam. Bergroth, E. 1906. Systematische und synonymische Bemerkungen Uber Hemipteren. Wiener Ent. Z. Vienna. 25: 1-12. ; Carpenter, G. H. 1892. Reports on the zoological collections made in Torres Straits by Professor A.C. Haddon, 1888-1889: Rhyncota from Murray Island and Mabuiag. Proc. R. Dublin Soc. (new ser.) 7: 137-146. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 97 Carpenter,G.H. 1901. Theinsects of the sea — VI. Knowledge 24: 245-248. Cheng,L. 1966. Acurious marine insect, Hermatobates. Malay. Nat. J. 19(5) 283-285. Cheng, L. 1973. Marine and freshwater skaters: differences in surface fine structures. Nature 242(5393) 132-133. Cheng, L. 1974. Notes on the ecology of the oceanic insect Ha/obates. Mar. Fish. Rev. 36(2): 1-7. Cheng, L. 1976. A new species of Hermatobates (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 52: 209-212. China, W. E. 1956. A new species of the genus Hermatobates from the Hawaiian Is- lands (Hemiptera-Heteroptera, Gerridae, Halobatinae), Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 12, 9(101): 353-357. China, W.E. 1957. The marine Hempitera of the Monte Bello Islands, with descriptions of some allied species. J. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool. 40(291): 342-357. China, W. E. & R. L. Usinger. 1950. Hermatobates haddoni Carpenter from the Mar- quesas Islands (Hemiptera: Gerridae). Proc. Haw. Ent. Soc. 14: 53. Coutiére, H. & J. Martin. 1901a. Sur un nouvel Hémiptére.halophile, Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris. 4(s6r. 1): 172-177. Coutiére, H. & J. Martin. 1901b. Sur un nouvel Hémiptére halophile, Hermatobatodes marchei, n.gen.,n. sp. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris. 5: 214-226. Coutiére, H. & J. Martin. 1901c. Sur une nouvelle sous-famille d’Hémiptéres marins, les Hermatobatinae. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris. 132: 1066-1068. Esaki, T. 1935. Insect fauna on the coral reefs in the Yaeyama Islands. Zool. Mag. (Dobutugaku Zassi) 47: 140-141 (in Japanese). Esaki, T. 1947. Notes on Hermatobates haddoni Carpenter. Mushi 18(7): 49-51. Herring, J. L. 1965. Hermatobates, a new generic record for the Atlantic Ocean, with descriptions of new species (Hemiptera: Gerridae). Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 117: 123-129. Hinton, H. E. 1970. Some little known surface structures. [In] Insect Ultra-structure (ed.) A. C. Neville, pp. 41-58. Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford. Marks,E.N. 1971. Australian marine insects. Aust. Nat. Hist. 17: 134-138. Matsuda, R. 1960. Morphology, evolution and a classification of the Gerridae (Hemip- tera: Heteroptera). Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 41(2): 25-632. Phillips, W. W. A. 1959. Notes on three species of marine Hemiptera taken in Addu Atoll, Maldive Islands, between October, 1958, and April, 1959. Ent. Mon. Mag. 95: 246-247. Polhemus, J. T. 1976. Shore bugs (Hemiptera: Saldidae, etc.) [In] Marine Insects (ed.) L. Cheng, pp. 225-262. North-Holland, Amsterdam. Usinger, R. L. & J. L. Herring. 1957. Notes on marine water striders of the Hawaiian Islands (Hemiptera: Gerridae). Proc. Haw. Ent. Soc. 16(2): 281-283. Walker, J. J. 1893. On the genus Halobates, Esch., and other marine Hemiptera. Ent. Mon. Mag. 29: 225-232. Correction — Hippomelas Plant Associations In a recent article on this subject (Pan-Pacific Entomologist, 52:272-285), the authors quote G.H. Nelson (in /itt.) (p. 279) as confirm- ing that Hippomelas planicauda Casey has been consistently taken on “Acacia.’’ This should have read ‘“‘Mimosa’’ as the data in the preced- ing paragraph indicate. — E.G. Linsley. A NEW BOLBODIMYIA FROM MEXICO’S CENTRAL PLATEAU (Diptera: Tabanidae) M.A. Tidwell Apartado Aereo 5390 Cali, Colombia and Cornelius B. Philip - California Academy of Sciences San Francisco 94118 Three species of the New World genus Bolbodimyia are known presently to occur in Mexico including B. atrata (Hine) from west central Mexico and Arizona, B. dampfi Philip from southern Mexico and Guatemala and the more recently described B. /Jampros Philip and Floyd (1974) from Chihuahua. An adult female of a fourth species, distinct from those included in Stone’s (1954) and Fairchild’s (1964) papers, was reared from a larva collected in El Chico National Park on Mexico’s Central Plateau approximately 100 Km northeast of Mexico City. The description of this female and the pupais given below. We are pleased to name this species for the collector, Luis Bermudez, who with his wife Ema, was of special assistance to the senior author during his stay in Mexico. Bolbodimyia bermudezi, new species A robust, entirely black-bodied species with black vestiture except for conspicuous pre-alar patches of silky pale yellow hairs, face and genae golden orange, and wing subhyaline with a sharply contrasting black costal border nearly to apex. Scapes shining black, expanded ventrally. Holotype female, 15mm in length. Head flattened, a little wider than thorax. Eyes pilose, background color dark green with lower 2/3 containing numerous shining reddish irregular spots. Frons (Fig. 1a) nearly bare, height slightly more than 2 times basal width, blackish, expanded below, with a shining black, swollen basal callosity filling slightly less than the lower third and scarecely connected on the lateral margins to a broad black median callus above. Lateral margins of frons, area between basal and median calli and upper margin of median callus with fine gray pollinosity. Lateral margins of frons from upper portion of basal callus to vertex with reclining balck hairs directed mesally. No ocelli. Subcallus bare, shining black, inflated. Face and genae golden orange pollinose with concolorous hairs. Antennae (Fig. 1b) blackish with basal portion of plate somewhat lighter in colo#; scape shining black and swollen below with numerous stout bristles; pedicel with a dorsal tooth; plate approximately 1/4 longer than style. Palpi (Fig. 1c) black with concolorous hairs. Body entirely subshining black with black hairs except for pre-alar patches of pale yellow hairs. Legs black including tarsi, tibiae not noticeably swollen, hind tibial fringes black, not accentuated. Wing (Fig. 1d) subhyaline with contrasting black costal border a little more expanded posteriorly than in related B dampfi, reaching vein R 4 +5, and apical hyaline crescent smaller. Vein R4 strongly curved forward. Basicostas bare. Halteres dark brown. Type locality. — MEXICO: Hidalgo, El Chico National Park, approximately 20 Km north of Pachuca, 8 June 1974. Luis and Ema Bermudex. Holotype in the California Academy of Sciences. No. 12785. Collected as larva. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:98-100. April 1977. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 99 Fig. 1. Bolbodimyia bermudezi, female. a. Frons. b. Antenna. c. Palp.d. Wing. Fig. 2.Pupa of B. bermudezi. a. Frontal plate. b. Terminal aster. The adult female is readily differentiated from females of B. dampfi by the distinctly pilose eyes, presence of the golden-orange pilosity of the face, the lighter colored pale yellow pre-alar patches not extending on to the pleura, tarsi basally and antennal plates darker; the first basal cell (cell R) of wing mostly subhyaline and lacking the complete infuscation as found in B. dampfi. 100 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Critical differences preclude thisbeing the unknown, possibly dichromatic female of B. lampros including black not reddish flagella, prealar lobes but not upper pleura yellow, and wing infuscation restricted to costal areas in contrast to remainder of wing. The larva of B. bermudezi was collected in moss on rocks in running water. The collectors reported that the substrate was made up of an association of mosses, Polytrichum sp.; liverworts, Marchantia sp.; and Cieraceae, Cyperus spp. The principal trees and plants in the area includd fir, Abies religiosa; Umblliferae including Hydrocotyle ranunculoides; and various Compositae. The adult emerged 2 March 1975. The pupal case was preserved in excellent condition; however, the larval exuvium was not recovered. Pupa. — Length 21 mm, frontal plate (Fig. 2a) with area between antennal sheaths strongly inflated; antennal ridges prominent, separated by a median cleft; height of ridge at cleft approximately 0.5 mm; each ridge subdivided by an indentation, the median portion larger with a heavily sclerotized, unusually pointed crest; frontal ridges distinct; callus tubercles prominent, 0.4 mm high on lateral margins tapering mesally; antennal sheaths reaching well beyond epicranial suture; anterior and posterior orbital tubercles prominent, the posterior tubercles more so. Thoracic spiracles 0.4 mm, elongate C- shaped. Fringes of abdominal segments 2-7 with well-developed spines, progressively longer on posterior segments, length of spines on dorsum generally about 0.4 mm long on segment 2, grading to about 1.0 mm on segment 7; shorter spines present on all segments usually situated slightly anterior to longer spines. Terminal segment (Fig. 2b) with dorsal and lateral combs continuous totaling 18 and 20 spines including minute spines; ventral combs with 7 and 10 spines. The pupal case was compared with 2 female pupal cases of B. astrata from Arizona provided through the courtesy of Dr. John F. Burger, University of New Hampshire. B. bermudezi is easily separated by having the area between the antennal sheaths more inflated and antennal ridges at cleft nearly twice the height of those in B. atrata. Frontal ridges present and well developed; callus and orbital tubercles prominent with longer spines. The immature stages of B. atrata will be presented in a paper by Burger in press at this writing. Literature Cited Fairchild G.B. 1964. Notes on Neotropical Tabanidae (Diptera) IV. Further new species and new records for Panama. J. Med. Entomol., 1:169-185. Philip C.B. and L. Floyd. 1974. New North American Tabanidae XXI. Another new Bo/bodi- myia from Mexico. Pan-Pacific Entomol., 50: 145-147. Stone, A. 1954. The genus Bo/bodimyia Bigot (Tabanidae, Diptera). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer., 47: 248-254. Cantharidin from Meloe niger Kirby (Coleoptera: Meloidae) D. F. Mayer and C. A. Johansen!’ Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman 99163 Meloidae are the source of the medicinal drug cantharidin, com- monly called Spanish fly. It has been generally assumed that all Meloidae with the possible exception of the tribe Horiini contain cantharidin (Selander, 1960; Pinto and Selander, 1970). However, much of the early literature is inaccessible and some of the early identifications are ambiguous. Actual analytic data are available for only about 33 of about 2,000 species, most of them belonging to the genera Epicauta and Mylabris (Dixon et a/., 1963; Carrel and Eisner, 1974.) During a 4-year study of Meloe niger Kirby, a predator of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi Cockerell, we tested for cantharidin in adult beeties. We believe this is the first positive analysis for cantharidin from a North American species of Meloe. Methods and Procedures Adult M. niger were collected from the field during March and April, 1976 and transported to the laboratory alive. Blood samples obtained from reflex bleeding were treated accord- ing to Carrel and Eisner (1974), and tested for cantharidin. Whole adults were ground in dry ice with a mortar and pestle and extracted with chlorform according to a method modified from Dixon et. al. (1963). Samples were injected into a Hewlett-Packard 5700A gas chro- matograph. Two columns were used: a 1.83 m (6 ft) coil of 10% sili- cone rubber SE-30 on chromsorb W Aw 80-100 mesh, and 2) a 1.52 m (5 ft) coil of 5% OV1 gaschrom Q. A oven temperature of 200°C. was used. Results and Discussion The presence of cantharidin in M. niger was confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry from both blood samples and whole beetles with peaks corresponding to authentic pure cantha- ridin (Supplied by Inland Alkaloid Co.). Blood contained 57 mM and whole beetles an average of 0.88 mg (0.12% of body weight) cantha- ridin. The only previous, authenticated record of cantharidin in Meloe is Dixon ef. a/. (1963) in the European Meloe proscarabeus L. at 2mg (0.187% of body weight). Interestingly, Shimano et. a/. (1953) tested ' Work conducted under Washington Agricultural Research Center Project No. 0147, Scientific Paper No. 4680. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:101-103. April 1977. 102 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST for cantharidin in the Asiatic spp. Epicauta gorhami Marseul and Meloe auriculatus Marseul, finding it in the former but not the latter. Westwood (1839) also states that some Mel/oe are not servicable in medicine (/.e. do not contain cantharidin). Apparently, all Meloe do not contain cantharidin. When disturbed, Meloidae respond by reflex bleeding, which con- sists of the emission of blood from the leg joints while the beetle remains immobile (death feigining). Male M. niger emit a maximum of 1 to 2 ul and females 8 to 10 ul. Male blood is a distinct red color and female blood a light yellow. Reflex bleeding is thought to be a non- glandular chemical defense mechanism with cantharidin, which is toxic to vertebrates and insects, functioning as a feeding deterrent. We have never seen reflex bleeding or death feigning by M. niger under natural conditions, but have observed it in the laboratory by hitting adult Deeties a sharp rap with a probe and in the field when collecting and handling the beetles. The general assumption is that vertebrates associate the delayed, noxious effects of cantharidin with the insect eaten and learn to dis- criminate against it (Carrel and Eisner, 1974). There is very little specific evidence of predation of Meloidae (Selander, 1960; Pinto and Selander, 1970) and we have not observed any predation on adult M. niger. In feeding tests, Meloidae have been refused as food with- out first becoming sick by baboons and falcons (Marshall, 1902); monkeys (Carpenter, 1921); lizards (Pritchell, 1902) and green sunfish (Tafanelli and Bass, 1968). This would suggest the ‘“‘becoming sick- learning to discriminate’ mechanism is not operating. A possible mechanism, suggested by Eisner (1970), is a chronic debilitating effect on predators into a species from which the tendency to cap- ture the lethal prey is entirely selected out. This would call for a high order of selection pressure. . When placed near an ant colony (Formica obscuripes Forel), most adult beetles were able to escape without: feigning death, though they were attacked by the ants. In one instance, we held the beetle among the ants until they punctured the beetle’s abdomen. Ants that came in contact with blood from the puncture immediately backed away and began cleansing activities. The ants eventually succeeded in killing the beetle, but they did not use it for food. Carrel and Eisner (1974) found this same type of cleansing response by Pogonomyrmex occidentalis Cresson from contact with the blood of Epicauta brunnea Werner. They also established that cantharidin is a feeding deterrent to some insect predators and not others. Meloid blood, due to the cantharidin, causes redness, pain, and blistering when applied to the human skin. We have not found this reaction in 10 humans that have contacted the blood of M. niger. Cantharidin in M. niger blood may be tightly bound to lipoproteins and therefore may not enter the human skin. The concentration of VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 103 cantharidin in M. niger blood is 57 mM, and this greatly exceeds the solubility of cantharidin in water. Alternatively, M. niger blood may contain a pharmacologically active principle which counteracts the effects of cantharidin. Literature Cited Carpenter, C.D. H. 1921. Experiments on the relative edibility of insects with special reference to their coloration. Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 69: 1-106. Carrel, J. E., and T. Eisner. 1974. Cantharidin: potent feeding deterrent to insects. Science, 183: 755-757. Dixon, A. F. G., M. Martin-Smith, and S. J. Smith. 1963. Isolation of cantharidin from Meloe proscarabeus. Can. Pharm. J., Sci. Sect., 96: 501-503. Eisner, T. 1970. Chemical defense against predation in arthropods, p. 157-217. /N Sondheimer, E., and J. B. Simeone (ed.), Chemical Ecology. Academic Press, New York. Marshall, G. A. K. 1902. Five years’ observations and experiments (1896-1901) on the bionomics of South African insects chiefly directed to the investigation of . mimcry and warning colours. Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 50: 287-584. Pinto, J. D., and R. B. Selander. 1970. The bionomics of blister beetles of the genus Meloe and a classification of the new world species. Univ. Ill. Biol. Mono. 42, 222 pp. Pritchell, A. H. 1903. Some experiments in feeding lizards with protectively colored insects. Biol. Bull., 5: 271-287. Selander, R. B. 1960. Bionomics, systematics, and phylogeny of Lytta a genus of blister beetles (Coleoptera, Meloidae). Univ. Ill. Biol. Mono. 28, 295 pp. Shimano, T. M., M. Mizujo, and T. Boto. 1953. Cantharidin and free amino acids in Epicauta gorhami and similar insects. Ann. Proc. Gifu Coll. Pharm., 3: 44-45. (Chem. Abstr. 59: 133089). Tafanelli, R. J., and J.C. Bass. 1968. Feeding response of Lepomis cyanellus to blister beetles (Meloidae). Southwest Natur., 13: 51-54. Westwood, J. O. 1839. An introduction to the modern classification of insects, vol. 1. London. SCIENTIFIC NOTE Note on the Distribution and Host Relationship of Idiomelissodes duplocincta (Cock- erell) in Mexico (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). — On 9 and 10 September 1976 | collected bees from blossoms of Ferocactus sp. (probably F. wis/lizenii (Engelm.) Britt. & Rose) growing in ornamental plantings on the campus of the Unidad Noroeste del Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey. The site is located 14 km. south of Ciudad Obreg6n (ca. 27° 29’ N, 109° 56’ W) in the irrigated and heavily farmed Yaqui Valley of Sonora. | made collections between 1130 and 1200 on both days, and on September 10, | took one female of the little Known eucerine bee, /diomelissodes duplocincta (Cockerell) from an open blossom of one of the cacti. Idiomelissodes duplocincta has been recorded in Mexico from Chihuahua and Coahuila by LaBerge (1956, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 37: 911-1194) and from Baja California Sur by Zavortink (1975, Pan-Pacific Entomol. 51:236-242). Zavortink reported the ecological relationship of this deserticolous bee to Ferocactus wislizenii on the basis of observations made by him in Arizona and New Mexico. My collection is the first record of /diomelissodes duplocincta in the Mexican state of Sonora, and it helps to confirm the use of Ferocactus as a pollen source by this bee. Thanks are due to Dr. Juan M. Mathieu, Director of the Unidad Noroeste at Ciudad Obreg6n, for his kind hospitality during my visit to that institution and to Dr. Wallace E. LaBerge of the Illinois Natural History Survey at Urbana for confirming the identity of the bee. — JOHN K. BOUSEMAN, //linois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:103. April 1977. Notes on the Biology of Hypothyris euclea in Costa Rica (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) Allen M. Young Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 Although the local species density of ithomiine butterflies in tropi- cal forests can be high (Brown, 1972), it is generally unusual to find very large adult populations of a single species. However, some ithomiines, such as Hypothyris euclea euclea (Latreille) in Trinidad, have seasonal bursts of synchronous eclosion (Barcant, 1970), which could lead to the sudden appearance of large numbers of adults over a short period of time at a locality. This paper reports the biology of Hypothyris euclea leucania (Bates) (tribe Napeogenini) at one locality in northeastern Costa Rica, and emphasizes that the larvae of this butterfly are gregarious defoliators of So/anum rugosum Dund. (Solanaceae) during the early dry season. The preliminary data on de- foliation of this food plant suggests that heavily defoliated plants produce fewer flowers and fruits. Habitat and Methods Clumps of mature S. rugosum create a canopy of about three meters high in young secondary forest (2-10 years old) at ‘Finca La Tirimbina’, near La Virgen (220 m elev.), Heredia Province, Costa Rica. The locality is in the Premontane Tropical Wet Forest life zone (Holdridge, 1967). Previous observations revealed that S. rugosum is the food plant of H. euc/ea at this locality; other food plants have not been found. Therefore, | began studies on the biology of H. euc/ea in the field and laboratory, using methods of previous studies (e.g., Young, 1974). Most observations were made between January 12 and February 12, 1976, and finally on March 31, 1976. Included in these studies was the estimation of defoliation by counting heavily fed upon) in four large clumps (Patches 1-4). | also counted the number of individuals in each clump bearing flowers or fruits (Solanum rugosum flowers and sets fruit during January and February, months of erratic dry spells which precede a period of more uniform dryness (March) ). The four clumps of S. rugosum were visited a total of eleven days during the period of January 12 to February 12. As little is known about the life cycle of this species, oviposition and early stages were also observed. Results General Biology: Oviposition activity is high during January, and rafts of oblong white eggs are placed on the ventral sides of mature leaves throughout the day (Fig. 1). From January 12 to February 12, The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:104-113. April 1977. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 105 Fig. 1. Life cycle of Hypothyris euclea /leucania. First column, top to bottom: female in oviposition, raft of eggs, first instar caterpillars. Second column: second instar caterpillars and a third instar caterpillar. more than 50 oviposition acts were observed in Patch 2, and of about 5,000 eggs counted in different clumps at various times (4 days) during this period, 70% were found in Patch 2. A raft of eggs has from 40 to 90 eggs, and an egg is deposited at five-second intervals until a raft is completed. During January and February, 73 egg rafts were dis- covered in Patch 2. Oviposition by other ithomiines on this plant was not observed during the study period. Four to five days after eggs are 106 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig. 2. Life cycle of H. euc/ea. Left: prepupa and lateral view of pupa; Right: dorsal view of pupa, and freshly-eclosed adult in the field. laid, they produce greenish-yellow translucent larvae with shiny black heads; second instar larvae are dark green, and third instars possess a striped color pattern of light blue, dark gray, and yellow (Fig. 1). The latter color pattern also occurs in the fourth and fifth instars, and a translucent light green prepupa produces a golden pupa (Fig. 2). The adults appear about 22 days later, bearing the familiar orange, yellow, and black ‘‘tiger stripe’ pattern characteristic of some species in the tribe Napeogenini (Fig. 2). Adults produced from a single cluster of VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 107 \ eggs may exhibit some color variation within sex (Fig. 3). In north- eastern Costa Rica, as in eastern Brazil (Brown and D’Almeida, 1970), Hypothyris is sympatric with several other ithomiine genera at forest edge habitats. Adults are slow fliers of shady forest edge and light gap habitats, where they feed on a variety of resources, including the partly eaten remains of insects, presumably attacked by birds and other small vertebrates (Fig. 3). A distinctive behavioral feature of the larvae is their gregarious habit. Young larvae, recently hatched from an egg raft, stay together on a leaf, but as they grow, they split up into smaller groups on dif- ferent mature leaves. Survival from predators and parasites seems high, although short periods of heavy rain often result in large num- bers of larvae dying. Gregarious Defoliation: The cluster oviposition habit of H. euclea, in which the number of eggs per raft is much higher than for Mechanitis (another ithomiine with gregarious larvae), results in the gregarious larvae becoming severe defoliators (Fig. 4 and 5). The de- foliation often results in a ‘skeleton canopy” (Fig. 6). Food plant clumps with little or no defoliation bear large numbers of flowers and fruits. In fact, in unattacked shrubs, 30 to 60 clusters of healthy fruit occur on each shrub: of a total of 23 shrubs examined, the mean number (and standard deviation) of fruit clusters is 41 + 19.5, and the mean number of fruits per cluster is 32 + 11.2. Inflores- cences are abundant during late January, and green fruits are abun- dant by February. Thus, the infestation of H. euclea is intense (January and perhaps earlier) when the S. rugosum population is entering a period of reproduction. In the four widely separated clumps studied, although canopy height and branch density are very similar, clumps of shrubs not heavily defoliated have far more flowers or fruits than individuals in clumps of severe defoliation by H. euclea larvae (Table 1). Although the sample size is small, the four clumps examined are sites where this species is very abundant. While leaf damage is severe in these clumps, by March 31 the H. euclea popula- tion had either experienced a severe reduction in size or else dispersed, as very few adults, eggs, and caterpillars were present, and previously attacked shrubs had fresh leaves. During January and February there are probably only two or three overlapping generations present on S. rugosum. Discussion Although it is reported that Mechanitis is the only ithomiine genus exhibiting gregarious behavior of the immature stages (Rathcke and Poole, 1975), it is apparent that Hypothyris also possesses this be- 108 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig. 3. Top: a series of laboratory-reared H. eucilea (left column — 2 females; right column — male above, female below). Bottom: Hypothyris eucilea feeding on the leg of a grasshopper in forest understory, Finca La Tirimbina, Costa Rica, February 1976. havioral trait. In fact, an interesting comparison of the early stages can be made between Hypothyris as a representative of the Napeogenini and Mechanitis as a representative of the Mechanitini. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 109 Fig. 4. Heavy defoliation of mature leaves of Solanum rugosum by second instar cater- pillars of H. euciea at Finca La Tirimbina (January 1976). Fox (1967) has reported the early stages and gregarious larvae of Mechanitis. Several differences are noted: (1) the larvae of Hypothyris lack the lateral tubercles and uniform coloration of Mechanitis larvae, (2) egg size and size of egg rafts are larger in Hypothyris than Mechanitis, (8) the pupa of Hypothyris is short and thick in profile, while that of Mechanitis is elongate and thin, and (4) groups of gre- garious larvae are considerably larger in Hypothyris than in Mechanitis. Furthermore, Mechanitis lays eggs on the small, heavily-spined species of Solanum (Fox, 1967), differing from S. rugosum, in terms of size, profile, leaf texture, and lack of spines (in S. rugosum). Examinations of about 100 plants of So/anum spp. attacked by Mechanitis isthmia at Finca La Tirimbina during February 1976 (A.M. Young, pers. obs.) revealed that in no instances were individual plants (usually widely scattered) heavily defoliated, and mortality of egg rafts was very high. These biological traits are different from the interaction of H. euclea with S. rugosum at the same locality. It shares with Mechanitis the characteristic of being very abundant locally, unlike most other ithomiines. In addition to biological traits such as cluster oviposition, gregariousness of larvae, and an abundant food 110 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig.5. Defoliation by fourth instar caterpillars of H. eucilea. plant, Hypothyris may be experiencing local population expansions, perhaps similar to that noted for Mechanitis in Brazil (Brown and D’Almeida, 1970). The gregarious behavior of the larvae, and the bright coloration of caterpillars and adults, suggest unpalatable properties in this butter- fly. The ‘“‘tiger-stripe” ithomiines are classical unpalatable models for mimicry complexes (Bates, 1862; Miller, 1878; Brown and Neto, 1976), including some species of Hypothyris. Perhaps, in addition to intensifying the advertisement of distaste- ful properties to vertebrate predators, cluster oviposition and the gregarious behavior of larvae have important consequences for the food plant. Barcant (1970) reports that H. euc/ea adults are abundant at certain localities in Trinidad at the wet season’s onset, but that numbers dwindle subsequently. Birch (1957) argues that local climatic factors play major roles in determining the abundance of some insects. A period of prolonged and intense rainfall in the tropics promotes the growth of leaves, while the dry season promotes the flowering and fruiting of some tree species (Janzen, 1967). Thus, by the end of the wet season, the local plant community is characterized by a large leaf biomass, providing a reliable and VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 111 abundant food base for some herbivorous insects. Given other suit- able environmental conditions, populations of herbivorous insects might become high by the end of the wet season and early dry season in seasonal tropical habitats. The Premontane Wet Forest life zone in Costa Rica is characterized by alternating bouts of dryness and wet- ness, but the longest succession of wet days occurs between October and December, and the longest period of dry days occurs in March. Thus, by early January, many plants may have allocated most of their energy to vegetative growth. For H. euclea on S. rugosum, a wet period resulting in a large potential food base for larvae followed by several short series of dry days that optimize courtship and ovi- position promotes rapid growth of the adult population. The last two weeks of December (1975) were exceptionally dry (Dr. Robert Hunter, personal communication), and these conditions promoted reproduc- tive activity in H. euc/ea and other butterflies. But, during January and February, although there are many days of complete dryness, there are 3-5 day wet periods that promote mass larval mortality and re- duced oviposition. Some studies have shown that adult butterflies may even be killed by bursts of intense rainfall (e.g., Cook et al., 1971). Although adults of H. euc/ea appear to be slow fliers, it seems likely that, if necessary, breeding should extend to all clumps of S. rugosum if the population is resource-limited at this time of the year. However, this does not happen and some clumps escape from heavy defolia- tion. Those clumps that are intensely fed upon show a reduction in fruit set. Solanum rugosum flowers and sets fruit during the short, erratic dry season, as do trees in more seasonal regions of Costa Rica (Janzen, 1967; Frankie et al., 1974). Prior to, and during this period there is intense reproductive activity by the butterfly. The progressive reduction of host leaf biomass due to larval feeding during January Tabie 1. Patterns of heavy leaf attack by caterpiilars of Hypothyris euci/ea and flowering and fruiting in four patches* of Solanum rugosum in premontane tropical wet forest near La Virgen, Heredia Province, Costa Rica, February 12, 1976. No. trees with No. trees with No. trees with No. trees with Patch fiowers/ fruits flowers/ fruit no flowers/ fruit no flowers/ fruit No. and attacked and not attacked and attacked and not attacked 1 0 21 0 7 2 1 15 0 3 0 2 4 4 4 0 16 0 5 *The four patches are widely separated along a dirt road that connects Finca La Tirimbina to the Penal Colony at Magasay. Only trees 2-3 meters tall were included in the census, although there were trees less than 2 meters tall that experienced heavy defoliation: Patch No. 1-0, Patch No. 2-8, Patch No. 3-0, Patch No. 4-4. Patches were of similar size, each occupying about 5-6 meters of roadside secondary forest. 112 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Fig.6. Defoliated bushes of S. rugosum. and February, the specificity to a single host plant, the shift in alloca- tion of energy to flowers and fruit, and the mortality of larvae are factors promoting a reduced breeding population of H. euc/ea by late March. 7 eh Acknowledgments This study is a by-product of National Science Foundation Grant GB-33060, and a travel grant from the Milwaukee Public Museum. The assistance of Dr. Kenneth Starr of the Milwaukee Public Museum is appreciated. | thank Dr. Lee D. Miller (Allyn Museum of Entomology) for identifying the butterfly, and Sr. Luis Poveda (Museo Nacional de Costa Rica) for identifying the host plant. The cooperation of Dr. J. Robert Hunter for logistical Support and facilities at Finca La Tirimbina is appreciated. | thank Cheryl Castelli for typing the manu- script. Literature Cited Barcant, M. 1970. Butterflies of Trinidad and Tobago. London: Collins Press. Bates, H. W. 1862. Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon Valley, Lepidoptera: Heliconidae. Trans. Linn. Sci. London 23:495-566. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 113 Birch, L. C. 1957. The role of weather in determining the distribution and abundance of animals. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 22:203-218. Brown, K. S., Jr. 1972. Maximizing daily butterfly counts. J. Lepid. Soc. 26:183-195. Brown, K.A., Jr., and R.F. D’Almeida. 1970. The Ithomiinae of Brazil (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Il. A new genus and species of Ithomiinae with comments on the tribe Dircennini D’Almeida. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 96:1-17. Brown, K. S., Jr., and J. V. Neto. 1976. Predation on aposematic ithomiine butterflies by tanagers (Pipraeidea melanonota). Biotropica 8:136-141. Cook, L. M., K. Frank, and L. P. Brower. 1971. Experiments on the demography oftropical butterflies. 1. Survival rates and density in two species of Parides. Biotropica 3:17-20. Fox, R. M. 1967. A monograph of the Ithomiidae (Lepidoptera), Part Ill, the tribe Mechanitini Fox. Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc., No. 22, 190 pp. Frankie, G. W., H. G. Baker, and P. A. Opler. 1974. Comparative phenological studies of trees in tropical lowland wet and dry forest sites in Costa Rica. J. Ecol. 62:881- 929. Holdridge, L. R. 1967. Life zone ecology. Tropical Sci. Center, San Jose, Costa Rica. Janzen, D. H. 1967. Synchronization of sexual reproduction of trees within the dry season in Central America. Evolution 21:620-637. Miller, F.1878. Uber die Vortheile der Mimicry bei Schmetterlinge. Zool. Orz. 1:54-55. Rathcke, B. J. and R. W. Poole. 1975. Coevolutionary race continues: butterfly larval adaptation to plant trichomes. Science 187:175-176. Young, A. M. 1974. A natural historical account of Oleria zelica pagasa (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) in a Costa Rican mountain rain forest. Studies Neotrop. Fauna 9:123-140. SCIENTIFIC NOTE Biological and Distributional Data for Evergestis angustalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Ever- gestis angustalis (Barnes & McDunnough) is a primarily desert species which flies in winter and early spring and is easily recognized by its exceptionally narrow forewings. The typical subspecies is known from the western Colorado Desert area of southern Cali- fornia. Munroe (1973, The Moths of America North of Mexico. Fasc. 13.1C Pyraloidea, Pyralidae (part). Evergestiinae. pp. 253-304.) indicated that he had seen specimens only from three localities in western Imperial and eastern San Diego counties in the low desert, but, in contradiction, stated that angustalis also occurs in the Mojave-Desert. He also characterized new subspecies from central Arizona and Santa Catalina Island, California. Records in the Essig Museum of Entomology, University of California, Berkeley, provide life history data and show that the species is considerably more widespread, occurring in Baja California Norte and northward into central California. The flight occurs in January and February in southern California and in Arizona, but there is one record each for May and July in Arizona (Munroe, 1973). Adults have been taken at lights elsewhere during early spring: in Baja California Norte, near Santo Domingo and 5 miles east of El Rosario, Mar. 18, 19, 1972 (Doyen & Powell); and in the San Francisco Bay area of California, at Alum Rock Park (near San Jose), Santa Clara Co., Mar. 8, 1960 (S. D. Smith) and at Walnut Creek, Contra Costa Co., Feb. 9, 1972 (J. Powell). Larvae were found feeding in hollow stems of Caulanthus inflatus Wats. (Cruciferae) at Big Panoche Gorge, San Benito-Fresno Co. line, April 21, 1967, and one moth emerged Jan. 23, 1968 (J. Powell no. 67D88). This plant is a desert species which reaches its northern limit in western Fresno County and its southern limit in the Mojave Desert (Munz, 1963, California Flora. U. Calif. Press, Berkeley; 1681 pp). All other collection re- cords are outside the known range of Caulanthus inflatus and presumably represent popu- lations of E. angustalis associated with other Cruciferae. — J. A. POWELL, University of California, Berkeley 94720. The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:113. April 1977. Expanded distribution of earwigs in California (Dermaptera) Robert L. Langston 31 Windsor Ave., Kensington, California 94708 and Scott E. Miller Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, California 93105 In continuing studies on the earwigs of California, recent records of Dermaptera are presented, plus older data, either missed or some- how not included in current literature. The earwig fauna of California was recently reviewed by Langston and Powell (1975). However, due to paucity of museum specimens and time lag in publication, their distribution in Santa Barbara County (particularly the Channel Islands), and in parts of the San Joaquin Valley were not well represented. The detailed California records indicate the museums and collections where these specimens are on deposit: California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco (CAS); California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento (CDA); California Insect Survey, University of California, Berkeley (CIS); Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles (LACM); Merced County Department of Agriculture, Merced (MDA); National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. (NMNH); San Joaquin County Department of Agriculture, Stockton (SJDA); and Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, (SBMNH). Anisolabis maritima (Gén6), the maritime earwig Recorded in Orange County in 1921, and there are quarantine records from Los Angeles and San Diego Counties in the 1930’s and 40’s. Searches were made by both authors in southern California with no success. Hence, A maritima should remain as only adventive, or by quarantine south of the San Francisco Bay Area. Additional specimens have been taken at established colonies in Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin and Solano Counties, 1973-1976, but no new locations were found since the detailed records of Langston (1974). Euborellia annulipes (Lucas), the ring-legged earwig The records below are numerous, but detailed data were not in- cluded in Langston & Powell (1975). Therefore, old records are given for the offshore islands and for some of those more recent than mapped (op. cit., Map 2). Only one county (Tuolumne) can be con- sidered new. California records. — IMPERIAL CO.: Winterhaven, IX-10-70 (R. A. Flock, CDA). LOS The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:114-117. April 1977. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 115 ANGELES CO.: San Clemente Island, Barracks, 1d, VI-24-1971 (D. C. Rentz & D. B. Weiss- man, CAS); Santa Catalina Island, 3 specimens, X-28-31-1908 (O. Marsh, NMNH); Granada Hills, 19, IIl-27-1975 (R. Sherman, LACM). MERCED CO.: Atwater, 299, VIII-7-1975 (R. Langston, CAS); Merced, Applegate Park & County Courts Park, several dd & 29: XI-3- 1975 (F. Carl, MDA). SAN JOAQUIN CO.: Lathrop, VI-4-1972, Quarantine from Vietnam (L. S. Hawkins, CDA); Stockton, 19, VIl-2-1975 (R. Langston, CAS), 19, 4 juv., VII-8-1975 (R. Langston, SJDA), 19, VIl-14-1976 (R. Langston, CAS). SANTA BARBARA CoO.: Santa Rosa Island, 192, VII-12-1939 (LACM). SOLANO CoO.: Vallejo, shore of Carquinez Strait, 1d, 229, XI-21-1965, 1d, VI-2-1966 (R. Langston, CIS). TUHOLUMNE CO.: Sonora, 19, 2 juv., VIIN-25-1975 (R. Langston, CAS). Euborellia cincticollis (Gerstaecker), the African earwig Merced and San Joaquin Counties are recorded as new in the data below, representing naturally occurring established populations. California records. — IMPERIAL CO.: 3 mi. NW. of Glamis, 2d, 299, IV-1972 (A. Hardy & M. Wasbauer, CDA). MERCED CO.: Merced, 10, 399, VIII-4-1975, 19, VIII-7-1975 (R. Lang- ston, CAS). SAN JOAQUIN CO.: Holt, 1d, XII-20-1971 (L. S. Hawkins, SJDA); 1 mi. E. of Peters, 19, 1 juv., I-7-1972 (L. S. Hawkins, SJDA). Labidura riparia (Pallas), the shore earwig Kern and Santa Barbara Counties are recorded as new. The Bakers- field example is a northerly extension of over 100 miles from the closest Los Angeles County locale. The Montecito specimen is a northwesterly range extension from Malibu in Los Angeles County of about 75 miles. California records. — IMPERIAL CO.: 3 mi. NW. of Glamis, 100+ dod, 99° & juv. at black- light, IX-16-1972 (A. Hardy & M. Wasbauer, CDA), 1d, IX-10-1974 (M. Wasbauer & R. McMaster, CDA). KERN CO.: Bakersfield, 1 adult, VIl-14-1971 (H. Knipp, P. Martin & T. Tandrow, CDA). LOS ANGELES CO.: Granada Hills, 1d, VI-12-1973, 1d, IIl-18-1975 (R. Sherman, LACM). RIVERSIDE CO.: Carvina Beach, 12 mi. SE. of Mecca, VII-12-1974 (J. Doyen, CIS). SANTA BARBARA CO.: Montecito, 19, VII-1968 (W.S. Hull, SBMNH). Doru taeniatum (Dohrn) In Langston & Powell (1975) specimens of this species were iden- tified as Doru lineare (Eschscholtz, 1822). However, the revision by Brindle (1971) of the genus Doru Burr indicates that the name D. lineare applies to a species which occurs in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. The species of Doru which occurs commonly from Bolivia through Central America, and into Mexico and the United States is D. taeniatum (Dohrn, 1862). Gurney (1972) reviews this and the two other North American species of Doru. All records of D. /ineare from Central and North America should be referred to D. taeniatum. Despite its abundance in southeastern Arizona and Mexico, this species does not appear to be established in California. Only two additional records were found, one apparently new for San Bernar- dino County. California records. — RIVERSIDE CO.: Blythe, Border Quarantine Station, II-18-1966, Quarantine from Vera Cruz, Mexico (J. M. Donovan, CDA). SAN BERNARDINO CoO.: Fon- tana, VI-9-1972, Quarantine on Zea mays (Shurtliff & Bengston, CDA). 116 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Forficula auricularia Linnaeus, the European earwig During recent fieldwork on Santa Rosa Island by the SBMNH, F. auricularia has been found to be well established. Localities on the mainland in the Santa Barbara area were mapped as either ‘‘quaran- tine” or ‘‘adventive” (Langston & Powell, 1975, Map 10). Currently it is common on the Santa Barbara-Goleta coastal shelf. Likewise, Hogue (1974) considers the European earwig established in the Los Angeles Basin. However, there are no established records from further south along the coast, and the European earwig is unknown from the Colorado or Mojave Deserts. It is now considered estab- lished in Merced County and Santa Rosa Island which were not pre- viously recorded. California records. — MERCED CO.: Merced, Applegate Park & County Courts Park, several dd & 29, XI-3-1975 (F. Carl, MDA); Merced, 16th & V Sts., 19, VII-6-1976 (R. Langs- ton, CAS). SANTA BARBARA CO.: Santa Rosa Island, Arlington Canyon, 2dd, 299, Il- 25-1976 (W. G. Abbott & P. W. Collins, SBMNH), 19, 7 juv., IV-22-1976 (S. E. Miller, SBMNH); S. Rosa I., ranch headquarters area, 2dd, 499, II-24-1976 (Abbott & Collins, SBMNH), 399, IV-23-1976 (Miller, SBMNH); S. Rosa I., Wreck Canyon, 14, VII-3-1971 (D. C. Rentz & D. B. Weissman, CAS). Quarantine records of Dermaptera in California In addition to the six foregoing species, four others have been taken in quarantine by the California Department of Food and Agri- culture. These have all been determined by Dr. A. B. Gurney, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. Labia curvicauda (Motschulsky) [Labiidae: Labiinae] This circumtropical species is essentially cosmopolitan. Published records as cited in Sakai (1970) include the major Ethiopian, Neotropical and Oriental Regions, Africa and most of the Pacific Ocean Islands. Despite its commonly being found worldwide, it has been taken in California only once previously — in 1934 in San Diego by quarantine from Guam. SAN JOAQUIN CO.: Lathrop, V-4-1972, Quarantine from Vietnam (L. S. Hawkins & K. Wright, CDA). Paracosmia toltecus (Scudder) [Forficulidae: Opisthocosmiinae] This species is Known from the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico and also Guatemala (Sakai, 1973). SAN DIEGO CO.: Port of San Diego, XI-23-1966, Quarantine from Mexico (C. S. Badman & R. M. Ireland, CDA). Skalistes inopinatus (Burr) [Forficulidae: Forficulinae] Published distribution includes Costa Rica (types), Antigua, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru (Sakai, 1973). LOS ANGELES CO.: West Los Angeles, 1 adult on leaf of bromeliad, III-28-1972, Quaran- tine from Guatemala (F. Cunningham, CDA). Skalistes vara (Scudder) [Forficulidae: Forficulinae] The type series is from Puebla, Mexico, with the distribution as cited by Sakai (1973) including the states of Mexico, Morelos and many from Puebla. SAN DIEGO CO.: Port of San Diego, XI-23-1966, Quarantine from Mexico (C. S. Badman & R. M. Ireland, CDA). VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 Bed Acknowledgments The authors thank Waldo G. Abbot, Paul W. Collins, and the Vail & Vickers Ranch Company for making possible the collection of the Santa Rosa Island specimens, plus Stephen Newswanger (Santa Barbara City College Life Science Museum) for providing a significant Labidura riparia specimen. The help of Alan Hardy (CDA) is appre- ciated for use of the department files on additional quarantine inter- ceptions, and for examination of specimens. Thanks are extended to the following for studying the material under their care and/or collecting specimens on their own with our encouragement: Kirby W. Brown (SJDA); Frank Carl (MDA); Charles L. Hogue (LACM); and, David C. Rentz (CAS). Literature Cited Brindle, A. 1971. A revision of the genus Doru Burr (Dermaptera, Forficulidae). Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia [Sao Paulo, Brazil], 23: 173-196. Gurney, A. B. 1972. Important recent name changes among earwigs of the genus Doru (Dermaptera, Forficulidae). U.S. Dept. Agr. Coop. Econ. Ins. Rpt., 22: 182-185. Hogue, C. L. 1974. The insects of the Los Angeles Basin. Published by the Los Angeles Co. Museum. : 27. Langston, R. L. 1974. The maritime earwig in California (Dermaptera: Carcino- phoridae). Pan-Pac. Entomol., 50: 28-34. Langston, R. L. and Powell, J. A. 1975. The earwigs of California (Order Dermaptera). Bull. Calif. Insect Survey, 20: 1-25. Sakai, S. 1970. Dermapterorum catalogus praeliminaris. Il: Labiidae. Daito Bunka Univ., Tokyo, 2: 1-177. Sakai,S. 1973. Dermapterorum catalogus praeliminaris. VIl. Forficulidae. Daito Bunka Univ., Tokyo, 6: 1-357. 100 Years Ago In Entomology — 1877 ADOLPHE BOUCARD, Coleopterist — was collecting birds and Coleoptera in Costa Rica. THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY, Coleopterist — was a cadet at West Point. HENRY EDWARDS, Lepidopterist — was an actor in San Francisco, associated with the “California Theatre’. C. R. OSTEN SACKEN, Dipterist — returned to Germany from New York. He returned a large collection of North American Diptera to the Museum of Comparative Zoology. S. W. WILLISTON, Dipterist — was leading an expedition to western Kansas in search of fossil dinosaurs. H. G. HUBBARD and E. A. SCHWARZ, Coleopterists — were collecting on Lake Superior. H. C. FALL, Coleopterist — at age 15 was in public school in Dover New Hampshire. He collected his first beetle this year. W.S. BLATCHLEY, Orthopterist, Hemipterist, Coleopterist — at age 18 was a door to door salesman in Putnam Co., Indiana. W. J. HOLLAND, Lepidopterist — was in Pittsburgh, where he was a pastor of the Belle- field Presbyterian Church, Professor of Ancient Languages and Trustee of the Pennsylvania College for Women. AUGUST BUSCK, Lepidopterist — was a seven year old child in Randers Denmark. J.H. MCcDUNNOUGH, Lepidopterist — was born this year. Biology of the range crane fly, Tipula simplex Doane (Diptera: Tipulidae) Margaret J. Hartman California State University, Los Angeles and C. Dennis Hynes California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo The range crane fly, 7ipula simplex, described by Doane (1901), is a univoltine pest of valued rangeland in the San Joaquin Valley. The larvae live in the grass of unirrigated pastures and when at high density, will eat the grass roots. Tulare County reported outbreaks of the species in 1961, 1967, and 1973. This latest outbreak affected 800 hectares on one rach alone, with acrane fly density of 3000 larvae per square meter. At this high density, the crane fly larvae denude the hills of all grass and other forage, with an adverse effect on the watershed. However, such high densities of crane flies occur only occasionally and ranchers detect no signs of the larvae in intervening years. Since little information on the biology of the species has been reported, this study was undertaken to determine the species’ life history and habits, as necessary prerequisites to understanding the causes of the population fluctuations. This study was conducted on unirrigated pasturelands in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains in northern Tulare County from October, 1974 through March, 1976, and was supplemented with laboratory rearings and experiments. Habitat In May the soil starts to dry out and by the end of June the soil contains only 0.3% water by weight. By mid summer the soil mois- ture has dropped to 0.2% with the temperature one inch below the surface of the soil exceeding 50° Celsius during the day. The first rain usually comes in September (about ¥2 inch), stimulating the growth of turkey mullein or dove weed (Eremocarpus setigeras Benth.), vinegar weed or bluecurls (Trichostema lanceolatum Benth.), and tarweed (Hemizonia congesta DC.), but the soil dries out almost com- pletely before the second rains come (usually in October). After these second rains the forage crops appear, and the soil remains mois- tened by periodic rain until April when the rains end, and the soil starts drying out again. Adults and Oviposition The males usually emerge before the females in February or March. When the female adult emerges the male grasps her and sometimes The Pan-Pacific Entomologist 53:118-123. April 1977. VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 119 pulls her out of her pupal case. Copulation occurs immediately, arid in the laboratory will continue for 24 hours. When the female is re- leased, she walks and pulls her way through grasses in the field until she falls into a depression in the ground. These depressions may be holes caused by loosened clods of soil and rocks, or imprints of cattle hooves. The female will oviposit all her eggs (average 96, S = 28.6) in the soil together, approximately % and % inches below the surface. Neither male nor female have been seen feeding. All adults in any one field emerge within a three week period. Eggs The egg is the stage which must survive the harsh summer condi- tions of high temperature and low moisture. In the laboratory we were able to induce hatching by drying the eggs for six months at a 16:8 photoperiod, then transferring them to a 10:14 photoperiod. They were kept moist for two weeks, then dry for one week, and then moist again. The hatching rate was 5.2% within one week. Hatching could be induced by this procedure any- time in the fall, but not if the alternate wettings and dryings were started in January or later. However, an additional 5% would hatch at age 18 to 21 months old, if the above mentioned wetting and drying regimen was repeated in September of the second year after ovi- position. Eggs are laid in clumps, which makes sampling difficult. Lang (unpublished data) collected 13 samples (11.5 diameter circle, to a depth of % inch). From each sample he took 4 samples of 5 grams each for testing. The number of eggs per 5 gram sample ranged from 0 to 2641, with a mean of 68.48 (S = 174.43). Obviously, sampling for eggs would require a large number of samples to insure that the sample mean is similar to the population mean. Hanson’s equation (1967) allows us to calculate the number of samples necessary to approximate the population mean (n = t?se?/(x-y)?, where n is the number of samples, t is the student T statistics for whatever confi- dence level, s.e. is the standard error, (y-) is the amount of deviation from the true population mean that the investigator will accept. Using Lang's data, and calculating 95% confidence limits, we can calculate that we must take 48 samples to be 95% sure that the sample mean is within 10% of the true population mean, or 195 samples to be 95% sure that the sample mean is within 5% of the true population mean. Larvae The first instar has never been found in the field. Laboratory rearing of eggs to hatching indicate that the first instar is morphologically different from the other three instars. The second instar larvae show a clumped distribution due to the oviposition habits of the females. By the time the crane flies are third instar larvae, a different pattern of 120 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST aggregation is observed. The crane flies are spread evenly through- out the grass, but are highly aggregated under cowpads that are one or more seasons old, under pieces of wood, or under any other debris in the field. For example, in one field, cowpads had 1104 individuals/ meter? (S = 513.3) while in the grass the density was 193 individuals/ meter? (S = 32.9). The degree of aggregation in part depends upon the dryness of the field. In the very dry winter of 1976 virtually all the crane flies in the field were concentrated under cowpads (2200 larvae/ meter’). The fourth instar larvae retain the aggregated pattern. However, during the late fourth instar (January and February) predation by birds takes a heavy toll. The birds that are most often seen eating the crane fly larvae are blackbirds and starlings, although curlews and meadow- larks will also feed on the larvae in years of high crane fly density. The most typical mode of feeding is for the birds to flip over one year old cowpads and feed on the larvae underneath (curlews) or poke their beaks through the cowpad and eat both the larvae which have burrowed into the manure and those which live between the cowpad and the soil (starlings and blackbirds). This predation drastically changes the distribution pattern. The remaining aggregations are located under and around older cowpads which have grasses growing through them, making them less vulnerable to predation by birds. Predation ceases abruptly with pupation of the larvae. When birds turn over a cowpad which has both larvae and pupae under it, they feed only on the larvae. Pupae In one week, the percentage of crane flies in the pupal stage rises dramatically (12% to 82%). Males and females can be easily distin- guished at this stage (Hynes and Hartman, in preparation). The pupae make movements in response to light and pressure, but have limited locomotion. The pupal stage is fairly short. The first adults appeared in the field 12 days after the first pupae. Aggregation The aggregation pattern of early second instar larvae is believed to be due to the habit of adult females laying all their eggs in the same place. The second, third, and fourth instar larvae are much more motile than the first instar, and it is not Surprising that a change in the distri- bution pattern occurs. Laboratory tests were performed in 1974 and 1975 to determine the factors influencing the habitat choice of the older larvae. The test apparatus was a straight tube (80 x 25 x 4 cm) which was divided into two equal halves. Different conditions could be main- tained in each side of the tube. Parameters tested were light (0 versus VOL. 53, NO. 2, APRIL 1977 11 5.6 lux) and moisture (0 versus 2 gm water on 12.5 cm diameter filter paper). Tests, when both sides of the cage had identical conditions, indicated that the larvae showed no preference for either side of the cage. When animals were given a choice between a moist and a dry environment, they always spent a significantly greater amount of time in the moist environment. The response to light was more variable. If both sides of the cage were moist the animals spent a sig- nificantly greater period of time in the dark. If both sides of the cage were dry, the animals exhibited no preference for light or dark, and moved continually (Table 1). This indicated a kinesis in response to water. Further tests on speed of movement indicated that a larva in a moist artificial environ- ment moved at arate of 0.08 cm/sec and in adry artificial environment it moved at a rate of 0.16 cm/sec. This was significant using the paired difference test. In a moist environment the number of head- turns that a larva made in a given time was not significantly different than the number of headturns for the same period of time when the animal was in a dry environment. By definition (Denny and Ratner, 1970), the larvae show an orthohydrokinetic response, that is they slow down, but do not increase turning, in the presence of soil mois- ture. The response to light was also tested by putting the crane fly larvae into a more natural condition of soil or manure in a cage. Their response to light above and below them was tested. All larvae moved down as light was shined from above (6 tests, 4 larvae/test) and 27 out of 32 larvae moved upward as light was shined from below (8 tests, 4 larvae/test). The difference between the numbers of larvae moving up to escape light versus the numbers of larvae moving down to escape light was not significant (Student’s t test). These results indicate that the crane fly larvae are negatively phototactic, and that their response to light overrides any response to gravity. Table 1. Preference for Conditions of Moisture and Light Test # of larvae Conditions in Conditions in Mean difference in tested preferred side of non-preferred side time spent intwo maze (A) and mean of maze (B) and mean sides A-B minutes spent mintues spent 5 5 dry/dark (19) dry/light (11) 8 min N.S. 6 5 wet/dark (25.2) wet/light (4.8) 20.4** 7 5 wet/dark (27.4) dry/dark (2.6) 24.8** 8 5 wet/light (26.2) dry/light (3.8) 22.4** 9 5 wet/light (24.6) dry/dark (5.4) 19.2** 10 5 wet/dark (25.8) dry/light (4.2) 21.6** **p>.01 122 THE PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST Finally, we performed a test to determine if a substance produced by the crane fly larvae affected aggregation. Ten larvae were placed in a cage containing moist filter paper (9 cm diameter) for 24 hours, on which they defecated and left skin traces. This paper containing the excretions of the larvae and moist filter paper were placed in a large cage (9 x 10 x 100 cm) containing a layer of moist sand. A number of fourth instar larvae were then introduced into the cage. After 24 hours, it was found that 94% of the larvae were collected under the filter paper with crane fly extract and 6% were found under the control paper. The aggregation index (Roth and Cohen, 1973) for this crane fly substance is 0.875. (1 is a perfect aggregation). We hypothesize that aggregation of third and fourth instar larvae in the field under cowpads or rotten wood is due to the following factors. The area under the cowpads provides a temperate, moist, dark habitat. When larvae wander into the area, they slow down (orthohydrokinesis). The aggregation pheromone